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{
"created_at": "2024-04-01T12:09:26.502626Z",
"data": {
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"answer": "The traits are determined by the combination of genes from both the sperm and the egg. This process involves meiosis, where each gamete (sperm and egg) contributes one chromosome to each pair, resulting in a zygote with a full complement of 23 chromosome pairs. The process of recombination or crossing over, where similar DNA sequences from the paired chromosomes swap genetic material, also plays a crucial role in determining the traits of the offspring. This results in a shuffling of genetic material and contributes to the genetic variation seen among offspring.",
"context": {
"2e22b52d-1a13-48d8-aab8-01a1840aa749": [
{
"document_id": "2e22b52d-1a13-48d8-aab8-01a1840aa749",
"text": "\n\nSelection could occur at multiple levels, from germ cell generation and propagation to fertilization and early embryonic growth.Chromosomal abnormalities, including aneuploidy, were found in 10-20% of spermatozoa and oocytes (20) and in the cleaved embryo, with a 21% rate of abnormalities in preimplantation embryos (21).These findings led to a model for natural selection against chromosome abnormalities (21).Selection extends to the end of gestation: Only approximately 30% of all conceptions result in a live birth, with more than half of aborted fetuses containing chromosomal abnormalities (22), a number likely to be an underestimate because of technological limitations in measuring all possible mutations.But even in the very small fraction of germ cell duos that survive this withering genome attack and result in a live birth, a number of severe de novo mutations will still be found (23).The data on gross chromosomal alterations suggest that overall, mutation frequency early in life is very high.The functional consequence, however, is limited because of selection.Somewhat surprisingly, this picture points toward an initial decline in genomic alterations, allowing the adult individual to acquire a somatic genome optimally equipped to provide function."
}
],
"3f8db22e-d5f9-44ba-8f78-fc77ccf024ce": [
{
"document_id": "3f8db22e-d5f9-44ba-8f78-fc77ccf024ce",
"text": "The phenotype of\nthe F1 hybrids is compared to those of the parental inbred strains to reveal\ndominance or semi-dominance relationships between the alleles that a¡ect the\nphenotype. Phenotypic di¡erences between reciprocal F1 hybrids indicate that\none or more of the following factors may a¡ect the trait: (1) sex linkage (X- or Ylinked traits), (2) genomic imprinting of QTLs that a¡ect the phenotype, (3)\nprenatal maternal e¡ects (e¡ects of intrauterine environment), and/or (4)\npostnatal maternal or paternal e¡ects (e¡ects of maternal and/or paternal\nparenting behaviour on o¡spring)."
}
],
"606c59c5-5ae4-47e9-b3eb-58afa55669d1": [
{
"document_id": "606c59c5-5ae4-47e9-b3eb-58afa55669d1",
"text": "Sex brings harmful alleles together into the\nsame genetic background, allowing selection to more efficiently purge them from\nthe population and potentially producing some offspring that are fitter than either\nparent. However, the benefit of recombining deleterious mutations may depend on the\nnature of the epistatic interactions between them. The mutational deterministic hypothesis\n(Kondrashov 1988) depends partly on this epistasis."
},
{
"document_id": "606c59c5-5ae4-47e9-b3eb-58afa55669d1",
"text": "In most plants and animals, sex\nis a necessary component of reproduction, and the question for evolutionary biologists\nis why reproductive mechanisms have evolved that way. In one of the experiments\ndescribed next, evolutionary geneticists have nevertheless devised a way to compare\nevolution with and without recombination in the obligately sexual fruit fly."
},
{
"document_id": "606c59c5-5ae4-47e9-b3eb-58afa55669d1",
"text": "This disparity in investment is the basis for the twofold cost: asexual\nfemales hypothetically could transmit twice as many alleles at the same cost. In most plants and animals, mates tend to be unrelated, leading to outcrossing. But\nsex usually also involves the basic process of physical recombination: the breakage and\nreunion of two different DNA or RNA molecules. Of these two processes, recombination\nis clearly the more widespread feature of sexual reproduction. A variety of reproductive\nsystems, such as selfing and automixis, involve recombination but not outcrossing. In\ncontrast, relatively few reproductive systems have outcrossing without recombination."
}
],
"6c0eb981-977a-42f5-a3b1-136e1ccfc5aa": [
{
"document_id": "6c0eb981-977a-42f5-a3b1-136e1ccfc5aa",
"text": "\n\nCrossing over-The swapping of genetic material that occurs in the germline.During the formation of egg and sperm cells, also known as meiosis, paired chromosomes from each parent align so that similar DNA sequences from the paired chromosomes cross over one another.Crossing over results in a shuffling of genetic material and is an important cause of the genetic variation seen among offspring.This process is also known as meiotic recombination."
},
{
"document_id": "6c0eb981-977a-42f5-a3b1-136e1ccfc5aa",
"text": "\n\nThe reason for the rarity of these mutations is natural selection: If the mutations result in disorders that decrease health and reproductive fitness, they will eventually be eliminated from a population.In exceptional cases, mutations may cause both beneficial and detrimental consequences, resulting in opposing forces of positive selection and negative selection that may cause the mutations to be preserved at nonrare frequencies in a population.For example, the HbS mutation in the HBB gene (which produces the β subunit of hemoglobin) causes sickle cell disease when present in both alleles, a detrimental consequence, but protects against malaria when present in 1 allele, a beneficial consequence, ensuring that the mutation persists in populations in areas of the world where malaria is endemic.Genes are passed from parents to offspring via the process of meiosis by which gametes, the egg cells in the mother and the sperm cells in the father, are generated.Ordinarily, each cell has 23 pairs of chromosomes; the gametes have 23 unpaired chromosomes.In meiosis, the 23 pairs are split so that each gamete receives 1 chromosome from each pair (Figures 8 and 9).Two gametes (egg and sperm) ultimately join into a single cell, the zygote, which has the full complement of 23 chromosome pairs restored.If all goes well, the zygote gives rise to a live offspring."
},
{
"document_id": "6c0eb981-977a-42f5-a3b1-136e1ccfc5aa",
"text": "\n\nRecombination (meiotic recombination)-The swapping of genetic material that occurs in the germline.During the formation of egg and sperm cells, also known as meiosis, paired chromosomes from each parent align so that similar DNA sequences from the paired chromosomes recombine with one another.Recombination results in a shuffling of genetic material and is an important cause of the genetic variation seen among offspring.Also known as crossing over."
}
],
"98ce73c6-a53b-486f-8326-4b0bd47ec22e": [
{
"document_id": "98ce73c6-a53b-486f-8326-4b0bd47ec22e",
"text": "\n\nIn the generation of gametes, crossing over regularly occurs, and genetic information is swapped between members of a chromosome pair.That doesn't matter within inbred animals, because the swapped parts are identical.In an F 1 animal, however, the chromosomes of a particular pair are genetically different, one each having come from each parent.Each gamete produced will be unique, as will be each F 2 zygote formed by uniting of the gametes from two F 1 parents.An F 2 group thus provides for expression of some genetic variability.This variability is limited to the allelic differences existing between the parent strains of the F 1 s, so that another F 2 , derived from different inbred strains, will express different genetic differences."
}
],
"a440a3fa-74e7-4fd8-8a7f-d0391300d6ed": [
{
"document_id": "a440a3fa-74e7-4fd8-8a7f-d0391300d6ed",
"text": "Sex brings harmful alleles together into the\nsame genetic background, allowing selection to more efficiently purge them from\nthe population and potentially producing some offspring that are fitter than either\nparent. However, the benefit of recombining deleterious mutations may depend on the\nnature of the epistatic interactions between them. The mutational deterministic hypothesis\n(Kondrashov 1988) depends partly on this epistasis."
},
{
"document_id": "a440a3fa-74e7-4fd8-8a7f-d0391300d6ed",
"text": "In most plants and animals, sex\nis a necessary component of reproduction, and the question for evolutionary biologists\nis why reproductive mechanisms have evolved that way. In one of the experiments\ndescribed next, evolutionary geneticists have nevertheless devised a way to compare\nevolution with and without recombination in the obligately sexual fruit fly."
},
{
"document_id": "a440a3fa-74e7-4fd8-8a7f-d0391300d6ed",
"text": "This disparity in investment is the basis for the twofold cost: asexual\nfemales hypothetically could transmit twice as many alleles at the same cost. In most plants and animals, mates tend to be unrelated, leading to outcrossing. But\nsex usually also involves the basic process of physical recombination: the breakage and\nreunion of two different DNA or RNA molecules. Of these two processes, recombination\nis clearly the more widespread feature of sexual reproduction. A variety of reproductive\nsystems, such as selfing and automixis, involve recombination but not outcrossing. In\ncontrast, relatively few reproductive systems have outcrossing without recombination."
}
],
"b014e368-d0d5-4eff-a9af-abd4a4ed6d29": [
{
"document_id": "b014e368-d0d5-4eff-a9af-abd4a4ed6d29",
"text": "\n\nAberrant recombination patterns on chromosomes that have missegregated have also been identified as an important factor, in both male and female gametes (Table I).This is because recombination together with cohesion of sister chromatids establish the unique 'bivalent' chromosome structure where homologous partner chromosomes are tethered together, a configuration that is critical for their accurate segregation in meiosis I (Fig. 2A).The remarkable feature is that recombination occurs in foetal oocytes whereas chromosome segregation takes place decades later (Fig. 2A).Since mammalian oocytes are arrested at the G2/M transition (or dictyate stage), this raises the intriguing question of how the bivalent is maintained until the meiotic divisions."
}
],
"b04f2221-de28-4c4b-893e-9da982ff864c": [
{
"document_id": "b04f2221-de28-4c4b-893e-9da982ff864c",
"text": "Traditionally, it has been agreed that the\nfinal sex of an individual (phenotypic sex)\ndepends on two sequential processes: the sex\ndetermination system of the species and the\ngonad differentiation process (Valenzuela,\n2008). However, recently, these two seemingly\ndistinct processes are viewed as part of a general process leading to gonad formation and\nsex ratios (Sarre et al. , 2004; Quinn et al. , 2011;\nUller and Helanterä, 2011)."
},
{
"document_id": "b04f2221-de28-4c4b-893e-9da982ff864c",
"text": "However, we expect that\nonly at this level, the most significant contributions brought by integrating epigenetics will be\nmade. Concluding Remarks and Future\nProspects\nFish sex ratios are the result of a complex interaction between genetic, biochemical, and environmental interactions. The ultimate result\nof these interactions at the individual level is\ngender: male or female. However, at the population level, the combination of sex determination and differentiation sets the sex ratio. In\nturn, sex ratios define the reproductive capacity\nof populations and, if sex growth dimorphism\nexists, also the growth characteristics, something very important in an aquaculture context."
}
],
"dcc71b11-5668-4274-9f35-d9b7f01695a2": [
{
"document_id": "dcc71b11-5668-4274-9f35-d9b7f01695a2",
"text": "Obehav is, in turn, influenced by offspring genes\nand environment (Ogene and Oenvir respectively). Hence, indirect genetic effects (blue arrows)\nand direct genetic effects (red arrow) are important influencers of behaviour. B) Parentoffspring conflict theory predicts that parental resource investment and offspring solicitation\nbehaviours are influenced by the fitness benefit to a focal individual (O), cost to a social\npartner such as a sibling (S1 and S2) or parent (P), and by their coefficient of relatedness\n(black arrows). 42\nFigure 2: Genomic imprinting can result in divergent phenotypes from the same\ngenotype. A) A paternally imprinted gene, i.e. maternally expressed."
}
],
"e7030862-fb3c-48cc-bbd1-e30ac5ed5864": [
{
"document_id": "e7030862-fb3c-48cc-bbd1-e30ac5ed5864",
"text": "Because of the small contribution, through the sperm, of\nthe paternal transcriptome to the fertilized zygote, and because of the stronger maternal contribution\nto child rearing in most model organisms, parental effects are typically thought of as synonymous with\nmaternal effects, although true paternal effects are known to exist (Rando, 2012). Maternal effects have been shown to be important during embryonic development, leading to\ndifferences in the birth weight of mice depending on the genotype of the mother (Cowley et al. ,\n1989; Wolf et al. , 2011)."
},
{
"document_id": "e7030862-fb3c-48cc-bbd1-e30ac5ed5864",
"text": "Therefore, the resulting phenotypic patterns lag a generation\nbehind the genetic transmission of the causal variants. The most well-studied parental genetic effects\nare caused by deposition of maternal transcripts into the egg prior to fertilization, resulting in\ndifferences in early embryonic development depending on the genotype of the mother. Certain genes\nhave also been shown to respond to maternal influence after birth through genetically defined\nmaternal behaviors (Weaver et al. , 2004)."
}
],
"f253e087-e030-40a8-8400-3b6bf50c1fd6": [
{
"document_id": "f253e087-e030-40a8-8400-3b6bf50c1fd6",
"text": "The phenotype of\nthe F1 hybrids is compared to those of the parental inbred strains to reveal\ndominance or semi-dominance relationships between the alleles that a¡ect the\nphenotype. Phenotypic di¡erences between reciprocal F1 hybrids indicate that\none or more of the following factors may a¡ect the trait: (1) sex linkage (X- or Ylinked traits), (2) genomic imprinting of QTLs that a¡ect the phenotype, (3)\nprenatal maternal e¡ects (e¡ects of intrauterine environment), and/or (4)\npostnatal maternal or paternal e¡ects (e¡ects of maternal and/or paternal\nparenting behaviour on o¡spring)."
}
],
"f9d93e23-292c-44b3-8f27-dc1b4d6b494f": [
{
"document_id": "f9d93e23-292c-44b3-8f27-dc1b4d6b494f",
"text": "It was believed by many that for each trait variant we should expect to find a\ncorresponding genetic change, or „gene for‟ that trait. Through historical happenstance the\nrelationship between genes and traits was set up and treated as if it were one-to-one. But the\nproduction of a trait involves not only genes, but also their interactions with each other and the\nenvironment, and chance."
}
]
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"question": "Once a sperm combines with an egg, what determines how traits are passed onto the resulting lifeform?",
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